Growth and Development of Press in Colonial India :
#Acts over press/newspapers in Colonial India
#Various Newspapers
#Imapacts and contributions of newspaper to the National Movement
The history of the newspaper in India starts only with the East India company. In the mediaeval time, also there were news writers, but they were mainly concerned with the recording of the events in various parts of the country and kept the Central Government posted with those development. It was only in 1780 that the beginning of press in India, was made when Hickey started India's first weekly paper entitled “Bengal Gazette”.In the colonial period in India newspapers served as potent tools of communication, enlightenment, and resistance. From their nascent beginnings under British auspices to their transformation into powerful vehicles of nationalist sentiment, the development of Indian newspapers reflects the dynamic interplay between colonial control and indigenous agency. The evolution of the Indian press, tracing its trajectory from early colonial publications to the emergence of homegrown newspapers that became bastions of anti-colonial struggle. It also played a crucial role in disseminating information, shaping public opinion, and eventually contributing to the freedom struggle.
Thе prеss played a crucial role in India's national awakening and indеpеndеncе strugglе by sprеading idеas and information. Howеvеr, British colonial rulе imposеd strict rеstrictions on both vеrnacular and English prеss to supprеss dissеnt and political consciousnеss. Coеrcivе laws, cеnsorship, and punitivе actions wеrе usеd to control thе prеss, pеrcеivеd as a thrеat to colonial rulе.
Growth and Development of Press in Colonial India :
It was only in 1780 that the beginning of Press in India was made when Hickey started India's first weekly Paper entitled “Bengal Gazette”. Soon Hickey came in conflict with the then Governor-General of India (Warren Hastings) because he openly criticised Hastings' policy. Hickey was arrested and imprisoned and the Publication of the journal stopped in 1782. Soon after two other papers The Calcutta Gazette and The Indian World were started. Like Bengal Gazette of Hickey they also ran into trouble because of their critical attitude towards the Government. For example Duane, the editor of The Indian World was persecuted by Cornwallis. Similarly the editor of The Calcutta Gazette was reprimanded by Sir John Shore for publishing certain communication between the French Republic and the Court of Directors. Certain other publications were started during the next five years. These included The Bengal Journal (1785), The Oriental Magazine of Calcutta or Calcutta Amusement (1785); The Calcutta Chronicle (1786), The Madras Courier (1788), and The Bombay Herald (1789). These publications learnt from the bitter experience of Hickey and avoided a clash with the authorities. The journals brought out up to this period had a very limited circulation. They were mainly subscribed to by the Europeans and Anglo-Indians. As regards the subject matter, these journals mainly contained lengthy extracts from the journals of England and other European countries. Sometimes they also published bold comments on the policies and the activities of the Company. As the Company did not want its misdoings to reach the Home authorities,these journals were often subjected to pre-censorship. It also punished the editors who adopted anti government policies. After the Portuguese, East India Company established its first printing press in 1674 in Bombay. Great poverty, mass illiteracy and repressive press laws were the reasons for the slow growth of newspapers in India.
Here in the following we briefly discuss about the Laws and Act which was imposed by the British Government-
1.Lord Wellesley and The Press Laws(Censorship of Press Act 1799):-
When Lord Wellesley assumed office as Governor-General in 1798, the conditions in India were quite critical. On the one hand Sultan Tipu of Mysore was carrying on negotiations with the French to turn out the British from India, on the other hand Marathas were fast increasing their power. Lord Wellesley was keen to ensure that the French should not get information about the political conditions prevailing in India, and therefore enacted the Censorship of Press Act 1799. This Act imposed serious restrictions on the freedom of press and looked more of a war-time measure. Under the Act the newspapers were required to clearly print in every issue the name of the printer, the editor and proprietor of the paper. All the material was to be submitted by the publisher to the Secretary to the Government for precensorship The violation of the above rules was punishable with immediate deportation. It may be noted that the provisions of this Act initially applied to the newspapers only. However in 1807 these provisions were extended to cover the journals, pamphlets and even books.
2.Licensing Regulations of 1823:-
In the light of Munro's report, the Government framed certain regulations in 1823. Under these regulations no journal or book could be published without prior licence. The copies of the publications were to be submitted to the Government for censor, and the latter was free to stop the circulation of any book or journal by a notice in the Government Gazette. A person guilty of publishing any literature without the requisite licence could be fined Rs. 400 for each such publication. In case of default in payment of fine imprisonment could be awarded. The unlicensed presses could be attached by the Magistrates. The Governor-General was given the right to revoke a licence or call for a fresh application. As a result of these regulations the publication of vernacular papers greatly suffered. Raja Ram Mohan Roy's Mirat-ul-Akbar went out of publication and so did many other vernacular papers, In fact after these regulations only three Bengali and one Persian newspaper continued their publication from Calcutta. James Buckingham, the editor of Calcutta Journal was also deported to England under these regulations.Later, Lord Bentinck also continued these regulations.
3.Metcalfe's Press Act or Liberation of Indian Press 1835:-
Under Lord William Bentinck Indian Press was somewhat liberated. Though Bentinck did not revoke the Licensing Regulations adopted by Adams in 1823, he did give greater latitude of discussion to the Indian as well as Anglo Indian Press. But it was under Charles Metcalfe, the official Governor-General from 1835-36 that the regulations of 1823 were withdrawn. For this Act he has been bestowed with the title of 'Liberator of Indian Press'. It may be noted that Metcalfe received valuable support from Lord Macaulay. the Law Member of the Governor-General's Council. Under a new Press Act the publisher or printer was required to make a declaration concerning the precise account of the premises of publication. He could also close down the press by a declaration to this effect. As a result of this enactment the Indian press was placed at par with the British Press. This liberal press policy resulted in rapid growth of newspapers all over the country.
4.Licensing Act of 1857:-
In the wake of mutiny the Government of India adopted a number of measures to restrict the freedom of press. Through the Licensing Act of 1857 licensing restrictions were reintroduced. In addition the existing procedure regarding registration, as laid down by Metcalfe also continued. The use of printing presses without licence from the Government was prohibited. The Government was given discretionary powers to grant licences or revoke them at any time. The Government could also stop or prohibit the circulation of any newspaper, book or other printed matter. This Act was a temporary measure and was meant only to tide over the difficult situation created by the Revolt of 1857. It was initially passed for one year only. However, in actual practice this Act was renewed from year to year and continued in operation till 1865. During this period Charles Metacalfe's statute also continued in force.
5. The Vernacular Press Act,1878:-
This act was Proposed by Lord Lytton. It was passed with a view to having better control over newspapers published in Indian languages. It is said that in 1870 the total number of papers published in India was 644,out of which 400 were vernacular languages. But the Vernacular Press became very vocal and critical of the government's policies. The Act attempted to stifle any opposition to the government voiced in the local languages of the country. Similar restrictions were not imposed on the English Language newspapers. Under the Act, the District Magistrate was authorised to demand a copy of an Indian newspaper. There was no appeal against the decision of the District Magistrate. To escape from this Act, Amrit Bazaar Patrika converted overnight from Bengali to English.In view of strong agitation from the Indians the Act was repealed in 1882 by Lord Ripon.
6.The Indian Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908:-
This act was enacted against the adverse comments of extremist nationalists in the newspapers against the government. Under the Act, the District Magistrate could forfeit any publishing house or printing newspaper that could instigate political violence and acts of murder. The Local government was authorised to terminate any declaration made by the printer and publisher of the newspaper that had been found the offender. The publisher was given the option to appeal to the High Court within 15 days.
7. The Indian Press Act 1910:-
It empowered the local government to demand security at the time of registration of not less than Rs.500 and not more than Rs.2000.It gave power to the Chief Customs Officer to detain all imported printed material which could be used for creating disaffection against the Government. The printer of the newspaper was required to submit two copies if found offenders. Sapru Committee: The law member Committee constituted after the First World War, headed by Tej Bahadur Sapru. The 1908 and 1910 Press Acts were repealed after the recommendation from the Committee.
8. Defence of India Act 1915:-
It was enacted to restrict press freedom during the First World War. The Act was also used for all political purposes so as to carry out the policy of the Indian Government in regard to the repression of political agitation.
9. The India Press (Emergency Powers) Act 1931:-
With the beginning of the ‘Civil Disobedience Movement’, the government passed this Act. Under the Act, all propaganda related to Civil Disobedience Movement was suppressed. The chief instrument through which the nationalist-minded Indians spread the message of patriotism and modern economic, social and political ideas and created an all-India consciousness was the Press. Large numbers of nationalist newspapers made their appearance during the second half of the 19th century. In their columns, the official policies were constantly criticised, and the Indian point of view was put forward.
The people were asked to unite and work for national welfare, and ideas of self government, democracy, industrialisation, etc., were popularised among the people. The press also enabled nationalist workers living in different parts of the country to exchange views with one another. It was also a medium available to the different social groups inhabiting various parts of British India to discuss inter-provincial issues. This led to the growth of regional languages and their literature like Bengali and Gujarati. The press was a weapon to the various leaders of religious reform movements, who criticised social evils like sati, child marriage etc.
Newspapers in India :
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| Source : Wikipedia.com |
*The Bengal Gazette(1780):-
The first newspaper in India was published on 29 January 1780, by James Augustus Hickey under the British Raj and it's called " Bengle Gazette". It was also known as " Calcutta General Advertiser's and people simply remember it as " Hickey's Gazette". The main Tagline of the newspaper was “open to all parties but influence by none.” Hickey's motivation for starting the newspaper was to provide a platform for disseminating news, opinions, and advertisements to the growing European community in Calcutta. The newspaper was initially published weekly and covered a range of topics, including local events, shipping news, court proceedings, and advertisements for goods and services. However, the Bengal Gazette also courted controversy. Hickey used the newspaper to criticize the policies of the British East India Company and its officials, often in a scathing and satirical manner. This bold approach frequently landed him in trouble with the colonial authorities, who were quick to suppress dissenting voices.The Bengal Gazette set a precedent for journalistic endeavors in India, demonstrating the power of the press to inform, entertain, and challenge authority. Hicky’s Bengal Gazette ceased publication on 30 march 1782 when it’s type were seized by an order of the supreme court.
*The India Gazette or Calcutta Public Advertiser( 1780):-
The Indian Gazette was an English language weekly newspaper published in Calcutta . It was the second newspaper printed in India. The paper was founded by Bernard Messink and Peter Reed, two East India Company employees on 18 November 1780, the paper was a strong supporter of the administration of the Governor General Warren Hastings, and a rival to India's first newspaper Hicky's Bengal Gazette.
*The Calcutta Chronicle (1786):-
The Calcutta Chronicle was a weekly English-language newspaper published in Calcutta (Kolkata), the capital of British India on 26 January 1786. It was one of the earliest newspapers in colonial India and was published for four years until it stopped its publication under pressure from the East India Company. It played a significant role in documenting the socio-political events of its time, especially
during the colonial era. Daniel Stuart and Joseph Cooper, founded the newspaper and also set up the Chronicle Printing Press. A large portion of the newspaper was dedicated to advertisements, and therefore was also called the 'General
Advertiser'.The newspaper was published for four years until 1790 when the East India Company withdrew its license. The company stated that the newspaper violated press rules and that the "contents of the Calcutta Chronicle having been for
sometime past highly disrespectful to the government".
*Sambad kamudi and mirat-ul Akbar (1822):-
Raja Ram Mohan Roy a social reformer recognized the power of newspapers and started a Bengali newspaper ‘Sambad Kaumudi’ in 1822 and a Persian paper ‘Mirat-ul-Akhbar’ in 1822. Sambad kamudi referred to a Bengali weekly newspaper which was published from Kolkata during the first half of the 19th century by Ram Mohan Roy. It mentioned a
noted pro-Reformist publication that had actively campaigned for the abolition of the Sati Pratha.
Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Mirror of News) referred to a Persian language journal rant that was founded as well as edited by Raja Rammohan Roy. The newspaper was first published on the date of 12 April 1822. It was published on a weekly basis on the day
of Friday. The newspaper folded on the date of 4 April 1823.
*First Hindi Newspaper in India (1826):
After the launch of the first newspaper in India, it took 46 years for the launch of the first Hindi newspaper in India. On 30 May 1826, “Udant Martand” became the first Hindi daily newspaper. It was published from Calcutta(now Kolkata) by Pt. Jugal Kishore Shukla.
*Times of India (1838):-
The Times of India, the world's largest selling English-language newspaper, was founded at a time when the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar still sat at his throne in Delhi, the seven islands of Bombay had not yet been fully joined, and there was no such thing as the Indian Railways. When it came to life on November 3, 1838, it was not yet The Times of India: it was called "The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce", and was published every Saturday and Wednesday. J.E. Brennan was the editor and the owners included a British syndicate of 11 firms. It was launched as a semi-weekly edition by R.N.D. Velkar, a reformist leader. It became a daily in 1850, and was renamed The Times of India after a merger with other papers. The merger was carried out by Robert Knight, "one of the most inspiring figures in Indian journalism during the 19th century". According to Dileep Padgaonkar, renowned journalist and himself an editor of the TOI during 1888-94. In the first 40 years after Independence the Tol had some legendary editors such as Sham Lal and Girilal Jain, but in the last two decades, editors are no longer the towering figures that some of their predecessors used to be. As Singh put it bluntly: "The one lasting contribution Bennett Coleman has made to Indian journalism is to cut to size editors who had grandiose notions about their positions." TOI has seen other changes as well after 1990. With the Tol entering its 175th year in 2013, the Times Group is the country's largest media conglomerate. The BCCL and its subsidiaries are present across media platforms, including newspapers, magazines, books and Television, TV, Radio and Internet. The group has a turnover of over a billion dollars. Explaining the central role Samir Jain, the current vice- chairman of BCCL, has played in the recent evolution of the TOI, the writer and journalist Samanth Subramanian wrote in Caravan magazine in December 2012: "Over the last two-anda-half decades, Jain has imprinted himself indelibly onto The Times of India, and thereby onto Indian journalism.
*Amrita Bazar Patrika(1868):-
Amrita Bazar Patrika was started publishing from 1868 as a Bengali language newspaper and turned to a full fledged English language newspaper from 1878 that continued till 1993. Sisir Ghosh and Moti Lal Ghosh started Amrita Bazar Patrika as a weekly first. Amrita bazar Patrika has often been treated as a Nationalist counterpart of the Statesman, the English language newspaper represented the colonial government. On the other hand Amrita Bazar Patrika was known for its nationalist position. During post-colonial India Amrita Bazar Patrika newspapers played a crucial role in critical appraisal of development projects and government policies.
*The Hindu(1878):-
The Hindu newspaper is an Indian English-language daily newspaper headquartered at Chennai (Madras). Which had been established on 20 September 1878 as a weekly newspaper, by what was known then as the Triplicane Six.Subramania Iyer became the first editor and Veera Raghavacharya, the first managing director of the newspaper.The Hindu became a daily in 1889 and still it's continuing. Subramania Iyer became the first editor and Veera Raghavacharya, the first managing director of the newspaper.British rule, the paper spoke out for independence—but in a moderate vein. It is one newspapers of the oldest surviving major of Indian nationalism, which emerged as India's voice in the freedom movement and played a cardinal role in the history of its freedom struggle. In 20 september 2024 it was completes 145 glorious years. During the freedom movement, it emerged as one of the dozen papers to oppose the policies of the British Raj within the Indian subcontinent. It coverage of the freedom Struggle, the lead role played by Mahatma Gandhi in it.
*Kesari(1881):-
Kesari was a Marathi daily Newspaper founded on 4 January 1881 by Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilok. It was significantly impact in Indian society. It also played an important role in development of Indian Nationalism . it vehemently opposed British policies that undermined Indian interests, such as the imposition of unfair taxes or the suppression of Indian industries. It highlighted the need for unity among Indians against British rule, inspiring movements like the Swadeshi movement. Kesari promoted Marathi language and culture as a means of preserving and celebrating Maharashtrian identity. It published literature, poetry, and articles in Marathi, elevating the language to a position of pride and importance. Through Kesari, Tilak addressed social issues like caste discrimination and women's rights. For instance, the newspaper advocated for the upliftment of lower castes and criticized the oppressive practices of the caste system. It also championed the cause of women's education and empowerment, urging for equal rights and opportunities for women in society. Kesari also played a crucial role in mobilizing the masses for various nationalist causes. For instance, it actively supported mass protests and boycotts, such as the boycott of British goods during the Swadeshi movement. Kesari's impassioned articles and editorials galvanized people to participate in demonstrations and rallies, making it a powerful force in the nationalist struggle. Alongside its political activism, Kesari provided educational content to its readers.it published articles on Indian history, culture, and philosophy, aiming to educate and enlighten its audience. It was continued to 1897.
*Yugantar Patrika(1906) :-
Yugantar Patrika was an influential revolutionary newspaper in Bengali that was established by Bhupendranath Datta, Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Abhinash Bhattacharya in Calcutta in the year 1906. It was a political weekly which served as the propaganda organ for the emerging revolutionary organisation Anushilan Samiti that was developing in Bengal during that period. The weekly journal obtained its name, meaning New Era, from a political novel named Jugantar by Shivnath Shastri, a well known Bengali author. The Western Bengal wing of the Anushilan Samiti, which eventually was named as the Jugantar group, acquired its name from the Jugantar Patrika. The journal justified and explained revolutionary hostility against the rule of the British Empire in India as a political tool for national freedom. It also condemned the right and legitimacy of the British rule. The Bengali newspaper was also critical of the Indian National Congress Party and the moderate methods of the party which appeared as support to the British administration. The target audience of the newspaper Jugantar Patrika was the politically motivated and literate youth of Bengal. The journal was priced at one paisa. Within a short period of time the weekly journal became rather popular, with a readership of 20,000 at a period of time. The renowned Indian freedom fighter Bhupendranath Datta served as the editor of the former Bengali newspaper, until his arrest in the year 1907. He was an Indian revolutionary who followed the method of a more radical approach towards political independence. Bhupendranath Datta was also a well known and noteworthy Sociologist. Jugantar Patrika also published various articles from several noteworthy Bengali revolutionaries such as Aurobindo Ghosh and Barindra Kumar Ghosh. The paper faced prosecution numerous times by the British government of India for publishing subversive and rebellious articles. In 1907, Bhupendranath Dutt was arrested for publishing articles that incited hostility against the British administration and he was imprisoned for a year.
*Vande mataram(1905):-
Vande Mataram was an English language weekly newspaper published from Calcutta (now Kolkata) founded in 1905 by Bipin Chandra Pal and edited by Sri Aurobindo. Its aim was to prepare Indians to struggle for complete independence. It was a daily organ of Indian nationalism. It played a crucial role in promoting nationalist ideals and advocating for India's independence from British rule."Bande Mataram" wielded significant influence in the development of Indian nationalism by serving as a platform for articulating and spreading nationalist ideas. Through its articles, editorials, and speeches, the newspaper inspired a sense of pride in Indian culture, heritage, and identity. It vehemently criticized British colonial policies and advocated for self-rule, fostering a spirit of resistance among Indians.The slogan Vande Mataram (I bow to thee, mother) has been used in India since the 17th century. It was later adopted as the national anthem of India by the Indian parliament in 1950. The publication played a crucial role in mobilizing Indians across regions and communities, uniting them under the common cause of independence. Furthermore, "Bande Mataram" served as a catalyst for political awakening and activism, encouraging individuals to participate in protests, boycotts, and other forms of resistance against British rule. Its influence extended beyond its readership, shaping the discourse on nationalism and influencing other nationalist publications and leaders of the time. One notable example of "Bande Mataram" influencing Indian nationalism was its role in popularizing the concept of Swadeshi (self-reliance) and Boycott movements. The newspaper actively promoted the boycott of British goods and encouraged Indians to support locally made products as a means of economic resistance against colonial rule. Through its articles and editorials, "Bande Mataram" advocated for the use of Swadeshi goods and the boycott of British imports, emphasizing the importance of economic independence for India's selfrule. This campaign gained widespread traction among Indians, leading to the establishment of Swadeshi enterprises and the widespread adoption of indigenous goods and Swadeshi and Boycott movements, championed by "Bande Mataram" and other nationalist leaders, became powerful symbols of Indian resistance to British economic exploitation. They mobilized millions of Indians to actively participate in the struggle for independence, demonstrating the newspaper's profound influence on the development of Indian nationalism.
*Navajivan(1921):-
Navajivan was an Indian Newspaper published by the Indian activities and leader Mahatma Gandhi in 1921. Similar to publications like the National Herald and Qaumi Awaz, Navajivan was also started with the intention to promote the principles of Mahatma Gandhi's Indian independence movement and Jawaharlal Nehru’s vision of modern India. The main objective of the newspaper was to inform and influence readers who supported the creation of democratic, liberal, and modern India. The aim of the newspaper was to speed up the propagation of the values of Gandhi: the interest in modernization, democracy, justice reform, liberal National Herald was an English Newspaper, established in Lucknow on 9 September social harmony of the independence.
*National Herald ( 1938):-
1938 by Jawaharlal Nehru. It was banned by British government in 1942 durning the Quite India movement.In 1938, National Herald, an influential newspaper, covered significant events like the escalating tensions leading up to World War II, political developments, economic issues, and cultural milestones. It played an significant role Indian Independence Movement .Reporting on key moments in India's struggle for independence, such as the Quit India Movement and the activities of prominent leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.It also Analysis of the economic challenges faced by India under British rule, including issues related to agriculture, industrialization, and trade policies.And Coverage of social issues such as caste discrimination, women's rights, and labor movements Reviews of important literary works, discussions on art and culture, and coverage of significant cultural events, Reporting on India's relations with other countries, especially during a time of global upheaval and shifting alliances etc etc. It was one of major English language newspaper in India after the end of the British Raj. Now the Newspaper has been linked to and control by members of the Indian Nation Congress political party. In addition to the newspapers discussed above, many other newspapers were published, which made unprecedented contributions to the development of Indian society, culture and nationalism. These include the following: Hindoo patriot(1853), Rast Guftar (1854), India mirror(1862), Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq(1871), New India(1914), Independent(1919) Young India (1919), New jeevan(1929) etc .
*Impacts of newspapers :-
Newspapers played a significant role in shaping Indian society during the colonial period. They served as platforms for expressing dissent, spreading nationalist ideas, and fostering a sense of unity among Indians. They facilitated communication and mobilization against British rule, contributing to the growth of the Indian independence movement. Additionally, newspapers provided a means for educating the masses and raising awareness about social and political issues, thus empowering people to advocate for change. However, they also faced censorship and suppression by the colonial authorities, highlighting the struggle for freedom of speech and press during that time. Newspapers played a crucial role in fostering Indian nationalism by disseminating ideas, rallying public support, and connecting people across regions. They provided a platform for Indian intellectuals, leaders, and activists to express their views, share information about injustices, and mobilize the masses against British colonial rule. Newspapers like "The Indian Mirror," "The Hindu," and "Amrita Bazar Patrika" became powerful tools in shaping the narrative of Indian identity, aspirations, and resistance against colonial oppression. Through their writings, they helped unite diverse communities under the common goal of achieving selfrule . Newspapers had a crucial role in the Indian independence movement, serving as a powerful tool for political education and the propagation of revolutionary ideas.
Here are some of the key ways in which newspapers contributed to the freedom struggle:
• They acted as political educators, providing a platform for the discussion and analysis of the state's role in the colonial regime.
• Newspapers were instrumental in disseminating political ideologies and strategies that fueled the independence movement.
• They played a significant role in fostering and shaping national consciousness among the Indian populace.
• Newspapers helped to spread the call for unity against British rule, encouraging the masses to join the struggle for independence.
In conclusion,
the colonial period marked a significant phase in the history of newspapers in India. With the establishment of the Bengal Gazette in 1780, the press became a potent tool for communication and dissent against British rule. The others newspaper including sambad kumudi(1821) , Amrit Bazar Patrika (1868), The Hindu (1878), kesari (1881) , Yugantar( 1906) Vande mataram (1905) , Indian Herald (1938) ect also played a pivotal role in the shaping public opinion, fostering nationalist sentiments, and mobilizing the masses for the independence movement. Despite facing censorship and repression, Indian newspapers persevered, serving as the voice of the people and laying the groundwork for the vibrant media landscape that exists in India today. The legacy of newspapers during the colonial period reminds us of the enduring power of the press in advocating for freedom, democracy, and social justice.
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